Compare Bronfenbrenner and Erikson Essay

Lifespan victimisations Theories offer explanations of how the mingled(prenominal) neuters and directs end-to-end their aliveness clip. time this objective is constant, the focus of these theories vary. Eriksons Psycho amicable reading Theory adopts an intra roughly wizal focus, outlining niner period related st suppuratecoachs of the life cycle while Bronfenbrenners Ecological layer Theory focuses on five socio-cultural fix ups in spite of appearance which the soul interacts, inter respective(prenominal) solelyy, over time. This act will focus on both these theories, their implications in the world of heavy(p) commandment, p machinationicularly from the perspective of experience within two South Kerry bounteous nurture Centres and finally the aras where these theories may concur and billet. Erik Erikson was a Neo-Freudian Psychologist who mounted a lifespan hypothesis identifying eight make ups of psycho fond human development.As Erikson and his wife, Joan, entered their eightieth decade, they ascertained a ninth stage. Joan Erikson completed land on this stage from notes make by her husband before he died and from her feature observations. In fact, Erik and Joan Erikson were co-collaborators throughout their years together as evidenced in the avocation kingdomment, To take over the sequence of psychosocial stages throughout life means to take responsibility for the damage Joan Erikson and I have originally attached to them(Erikson E.H. cited Erikson E.H. & Erikson J. 1997,p.55). Also, while recounting a trip to Los Angeles where Erik Erikson had been invited to present the stages to a group of Psychologists and Psychiatrists, Joan Erikson tells of her uneasiness while they discussed the presentation. At this stage, there were seven stages in their exemplar. In a shocking endorsement of clarity I saw what was wrong (Erikson E.H & Erikson J. 1997 p.3). She had spotted that We were missing and subsequently, they added an eig hth stage entitled Generativity vs. Stagnation.This signifi thronet contri entirelyion was made by Joan Erikson on the trip to the train station where Erik could catch the Los Angeles train, and then for me to go jeopardize to home and the children (Erikson E.H.& Erikson J. 1997, p.2). Eriksons Psychosocial Theory holds that personality develops through nine stages across the entire lifespan. face-to-faceity can be said to develop according to steps predetermined in the human organisms readiness to be driven forward, to be aware of and to interact with a widening social radius (Erikson 1959 cited Tennant M. 1997 p.33). Each of these stages involves challenges and conflicts which, if successfully resolved, allow the man-to-man to develop a volume, or virtue which they bring with them into the following stage. If unsuccessfully resolved, the somebody proceeds into the next stage not only without this strength but with a corresponding interdict fragment which is analogously to crush their increaseive development. Erikson refers to these strengths as syntonic elements and the negative elements as dystonic elements. For example, at infancy the starting line stage, age 0-1 years, the conflict or challenge experienced by the single is trust vs. mistrust.The syntonic element that energy result is hope, the dystonic element is withdrawal. Erikson explains vs. as standing for versus and yet excessively, in the light of their complementarity, for something like visa versa. (Erikson E.H. & Erikson J. 1997, p.55). Erikson does not hold that that an psyches resolved state should lay at the end of the continuum. The child overly needs to develop some healthy mistrust, such as learning to discriminate amid dangerous and safe state of affairss (Bee & Boyd 2003, p.258). It is only in experiencing and understanding these opposites such as trust and mistrust that we can develop the relevant strength. At separately of these age related stages, the individual is in communication and conflict with a significant psychosocial dealinghip. Again, for example, at the first stage, Erikson states that this relationship is with the m another(prenominal). Others are seen in the following chartEriksons psychosocial crisis stages(syntonic v dystonic)Freudian psycho- sexual stageslife stage / relationships / issuesbasic virtue and second named strength (potential domineering outcomes from apiece crisis) maladaptation / malignancy(potential negative outcome superstar or the other from un functionful experience during each crisis) 1. Trust v MistrustOralinfant / mother / ply and being comforted, teething, sleeping Hope and DriveSensory Distortion / separation2. Autonomy v Shame & DoubtAnaltoddler / farms / natural functions, toilet training, muscular control, walking Will power and Self-ControlImpulsivity / Compulsion3. chess opening v GuiltPhallicpreschool / family / exploration and disco very(prenominal), adventure and play excogitation and DirectionRuthlessness / Inhibition4. Industry v Inferiority rotational latencyschoolchild / school, teachers, friends, neighbourhood /achievement and accomplishment Competence and Method specialise Virtuosity / Inertia5. Identity v Role ConfusionPuberty and Genitality young / peers, groups, influences / resolving identity operator and direction, becoming a grown-up Fidelity and Devotion ecstasy / Repudiation6. Intimacy v Isolation(Genitality)young adult / lovers, friends, work connections / intimate relationships, work and social life Love and Affiliationpromiscuity / Exclusivity7. Generativity v Stagnationn/amid-adult / children, community / giving back, helping, contributing Care and ProductionOverextension / Rejectivity8. Integrity v Despairn/alate adult / society, the world, life / meaning and purpose, life achievements apprehension and RenunciationPresumption / Disdainhttp//www.businessballs.com/erik_erikson_psychosocial_theory.htm Joan Erikson, reviewing their lifecycle the ory (while adding the ninth stage),notes that the syntonic element is forever and a day mentioned first, before the dystonic. Stating that it should be noted that a great deal circumstances may formulateate the dystonic in a more dominant position (Erikson E.H. & Erikson J. 1997 p. 106). She continues that old age is such a circumstance. For this reason, in her account of the ninth stage she places the dystonic first i.e. Despair and Disgust vs. Integrity Wisdom (Erikson E.H. & Erikson J. 1997, p.106) and recounts a revisiting of all the stages, this time with different virtues emerging (see chart below), ideally culminating in a state of gerosuperiority. Lars Tornstam defines gerotranscendence as a shift in perspective from a materialistic and rational vision to a more cosmic and transcendence one, normally followed by an increase in life satisfaction (Tornstam cited Erikson E.H. & Erikson J. 1997, p.123).www.intropsych.comEriksons theory highlights the need to provide age appr opriate activities for the pupils. Also, within the sphere of Youthreach and VTOS broadcasts, particular attention efficiency be given to stimulating identity exploration in adolescents. For example, within the Fetac Personal and Interpersonal Skills module, helping the student explore their strengths, aptitudes, learning styles, personality types and through communication with outside agencies, assist career exploration. Early school leavers, as is evident in one South Kerry Youthreach programme, often have experienced social and educational red and as such are vulnerable to unemployment, depression and the growing offspring of suicides are always a concern. Very often, a single parent is the sole guardian and this parent is female, as are the majority of teachers and social workers. Positive grapheme models, with whom the young person can identify, have been shown to help in promoting health care in young people. Local role models and peers can as well as play an important role in diligently promoting projects, and have the capacity to allay fears or embarrassment that some young men might feel about getting involved (Richardson N, Clarke N. & Fowler C. 2013, p.111).Education reduces can organise support from such positivist role models. Regarding Eriksons stage of Young great(p)hood, Education Centres provide a social mise en scene where people can meet, communicate and escape the isolation thatoften results from unemployment. Adult education provides an opportunity for a kind of self- generation concerned with go on identity development. (Erikson 1998 p.67) Apparent to those involved in this field is the materialisation of care and respect that the adult has for their new learning, a virtue unhappily missing from the reluctant schoolchild of their yesteryears. As retirement age is labored forward and healthcare education promises longer active lives, there is no reason why adult education should not be usable to people into their ninetie s. What better way to synthesise integrity and despair than use ones wisdom, sharing with others while learning new things. Despair expresses the feeling that time is now short, excessively short for the attempt to start another life and try out alternate roads(Erikson 1963 cited Erikson E.H.& Erikson J.M. 1997 p.113) Adult education might notwithstanding offer an alternate road. Tutors might also commingle older people in the community to come in to the centres to fetch their knowledge.Bronfenbrenners Ecological Systems Theory is the scientific study of the development of the individual person as they experience the bi-directional influences encountered within the various milieus throughout their lifespan. cognition and emotion have been named as mediators for this development and identity and competence has been describe as the outcomes. (Garbarino and Abramowitz, 1992 cited Graham A. 2013, p.32). Two types of risks to positive change are identified. These are direct threat s and the absence of opportunities. (Garbarino and Abramowitz, 1992 cited Graham A. 2013, p.32). These risks can be biological or socio-cultural.There is interplay between these two sources and deficits in one source may be compensated by richness in the other. Bronfenbrenner categorised the surround as a nested arrangement of structures, each contained within the next. (Bronfenbrenner 1977, p.514 ). Adapting linguistic process from Brim (1975) Bronfenbrenner names these structures as microsystems, mesosystems, exosystems, macrosystems and chronosystems. Bronfenbrenners Ecological Theory of Development(http//highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/dl/free/0073378585/660384/san78585_c03_072_11)A Microsystem is the complex of relations between the growing person and environment in an immediate setting containing that person (Bronfenbrenner 1977, p.514). This includes family, friends, neighbours, school and work. The individuals development is affected by the beliefs, attitudes, temperament a nd personality of the various people within these settings, but the individual, according to Bronfenbrenner, is not a supine recipient but is someone who helps construct the settings. (Bronfenbrenner 1977 cited Graham A. 22013, p. 33). The mesosystem comprises the interrelations among major settings containing the developing person at a particular point in his or her life. (Bronfennbrenner U.1977,p.515).The better interconnected the microsystems, the more consistent the individuals development is likely to be. The exosystem is an influence system which contain both ballock and informal structures which impinge on or encompass the settings in which the developing person in found (Sugarman L.1993, p.11). The exosystem is an extension of the mesosystems. This refers to a collection of settings in which the individual does not directly interact but which affect him or her nonetheless. This would include the government, medical system, labour market, mass media and the neighbourhood. Macrosystems, the fourth of Bronfenbrenners layers of influence, involves the destination within which the individual lives carried often unwittingly in the minds of the societys members as ideology made manifest through customs and pattern in everyday life (Bronfenbrenner U. 1977 p.515).The influence of these customs and beliefs cascade big bucks through all the other systems. The Chronosystem was later added by Bronfenbrenner and is described as a research model that makes possible examining the influence on the persons development of changes (and continuities) over time in the environments in which the person is living (Bronfenbrenner U. 1986a p.724). These changes are sociohistorical and are considered as occurring within the individual and also within the environment. Changes can be normative (school, new relationships, getting a job, giving birth) or non-normative (divorce, illness, death).In the further education setting, Bronfenbrenners theory is useful inimplying the ben efits of helping offset risks that may apply to the student, such un-nurturing home environment, poor interpersonal relationships, violence and the absence of opportunities experienced such as lose of education to date, limited skills, poor job opportunities and lack of self- awareness. Creating experiences where the students can develop intellectually and emotionally through the academic programme as well as teamwork, outings, reflective practice and empathy building. Bronfenbrenner stresses the value of the interconnection of the microsystems. Within a South Kerry Youthreach programme there is typically very poor connectedness between the education centre, the families and the communities. Open days often have few or no parents attending with perhaps just a few professionals such as guards, social workers and other education officers turning up to appreciate the work on display. Also anecdotical evidence shows very poor awareness of the programme in the community.This centre is working hard at increase community awareness and vulgar rapport by involving students in local charity events, community art exhibitions and development of a work experience programme. Many second come across education students are angry and aware that they have in some way been failed by structures such as government, medical system, labour market, media and the neighbourhood. cognisance of the systems can be poor and many adult students lack the combine and basic literacy skills to investigate and negotiate these systems. The dialogue man is critical and knows that although it is within the power of men to take a leak and transform in a cover situation of alienation men may be impaired in the use of that power (Friere P. 1975 p.63). Modules such as Communications, SPHE, Personal Effectiveness and Personal and Interpersonal Skills should perhaps be regarded as a means of increasing this sense of efficacy and knowledge of the exosystem. Also inviting people who hold power with in these systems to come in to centres to talk to the students may help discriminate down barriers and increase awareness.Cultural influences affect how we think, feel and act. In one South Kerry Youthreach centre unconscious belief systems are apparent in casual racist comments and career aspirations (childcare and hairdressing for girls, construction and mechanics for boys) or in some cases, no aspirations of employment at all in keeping with family history. A more privileged young person might perceive good group participation as a positive aspiration.However, in one South Kerry Youthreach programme it is reported that during initial interviews, future students, when asked how they might get on in a group situation tend to perceive this question as are you a trouble-maker? and process that they intend to ignore everyone in the group and just mind their own business believing this to be the correct answer. The work of educators here might entail helping to create positive group experience and also help to open doors that might enrich the individuals life, create an atmosphere of curiosity and questioning of beliefs, values and culture and introduce positive and varied role models. Overtime, many changes effect the development of the individual.This time cypher may be within a lifetime, or spanning decades. Often it is a non-normative change such as marital breakdown, redundancy or convalescence from illness that forces a re-evaluation and brings a person back to education. Helping the individual cope with change by creating opportunities for new identities and competencies is the work required here.Erikson and Bronfenbrenner, both psychologists, have examined the development of the individual over their lifespan. Although Erickson organises his theory in monetary value of age related stages, and Bronfenbrenner in systems, neither theorist attempts to explain change and development in terms of age only. All life stage theorists look at the processes tha t bring about these changes and as Sugarman points out What we can say about change is determined by our research design that is, what we choose to measure, how and why. (Sugarman L. 1986, p.13). Eriksons research design studies intrapersonal changes in the individual and explains that these changes occur within particular chronological age groupings, within particular social settings as a result of the resolution of tensions experienced. However, Bronfenbrenner on the other hand takes a wider socio-cultural view and has researched the changes occurring in the individual within the many settings, within the many systems in which the individual interacts. He categorised the environment as as consisting of interrelated and nested structures (Jordan A., Carlisle O., & freshet A, 2008, p.82). Unlike Erikson, Bonfenbrenner has been criticised for paying too little attention to biological and cognitive factors although he expanded his theory to a bioecological theory later on. Erikson r epresents the individualsdevelopment as ordered and linear whereas Bronfenbrenners perspective is one of random and multidirectional development. It would, however, be unfair to suggest that Erikson did not take account of the various social and cultural influences that Bronfenbrenner focused on, hence his Psychosocial Theory . Joan Erikson states that her husband always held that the individual and society are intricately woven (Erikson E.H. & Erikson J, 1997, p.114).He attributes psychosocial manifestations to each of his stages and also describes the processes and experiences of the soma, the psyche and the ethos. (Erikson E.H. & Erikson J, 1997, p.25). However, he has not explicated this aspect of his theory as fully as he did the stages of individual development. (Sugarman L. 1986 p.84). Erikson defines these social influences sort of precisely as the individuals radius of significant relations whereas Bronfenbrenners theory allows for a more individually tailored, scopeual a pproach. Both Erikson and Bronfenbrenner were active into their eightieth decade and remained engaged in critical reflection of their work. Erikson worked on the blueprint for his ninth stage and in 1994, Uri Bronfenbrenner renamed his theory bioecological systems theory to punctuate that a childs own biology is a primary winding environment fuelling her development(http//www.cmskids.com/providers/early_steps/training/documents/bronfenbrenners_ecological.pdf.) While Eriksons writing is fastidious and literary, Bronfenbrenners is scientific and at times political. Bronfenbrenner advocated experimentation in a real setting as opposed to the traditional laboratory approach, although he did not dispense with the latter as being of use and alludes to the as yet unexploited power of the laboratory as an ecological contrast. (Bronfenbrenner 1977, p.514) At the centre of both these theories is the individual. These are not opposing theories but two perspectives in search of a similar und erstanding. Bronfenbrenner himself make this transcend A variety of approaches are needed if we are to make progress toward the ultimate goal of understanding human development in context (Bronfenbrenner 1977 p.529).BibliographyBee H., & Boyd D. ( 2003). The Developing Child, 10th ed. Boston Allyn &Bacon. Bronfenbrenner U. (1977). Toward an Experimental Ecology of Human Development Electronic version. American Psychologist, 32, 513-531. Bronfenbrenner U. (1986). Ecology of the Family as a Context for Human Development Research Perspectives Electronic version. Developmental Psychology, 22, 723-742. Erikson E.H. (1950). Childhood and Society. Middlesex Penguin Books Ltd. Erikson E.H., & Erikson J.M. (1997). The Life Cycle Completed, all-inclusive version. New York W.W. Norton and Company, Inc. Friere P. (1975). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Middlesex Penguin Books Ltd. Graham A. (2012). Psychology of Adult Learning, WIT, 26th March, 2012, Tralee Jordan A., Carlile O., & Stack A. (2008) . Approaches to Learning a Guide for Teachers. Berkshire Open University Press. Richardson N., Clarke N., & Fowler C. (2013). A Report on the All-Ireland Young Men and Suicide Project. Ireland Mens Health gathering in Ireland. Sugarman L. (1986). Life-Span Development Concepts, Theories and Interventions. London Routledge. Tennant M. (1997). Psychology & Adult Learning. London Routledge.Module Psychology of Adult Learning Level 6Title examine and contrast Eriksons eight stages of psychosocial development with Bronfenbrenners Ecological model of Development