Innovation through the next generation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Innovation through the next generation - Essay Example Initially their prices were not set or developed for the normal mobile phone user. Blackberry 8900 is still mainly targeted to the business class (BlackBerry Torch 9800 & 9810, 2011). The cell phone offers preloaded with the trial version of Microsoft Office and now provides the ability to edit, format and save the documents directly on mobile phone. The blackberry also focuses the elite business class with wireless connectivity option for faster, speedy paced Internet connections when the subscriber needs it the most. Blackberry has now been stimulated with the young generation capturing style and fashion. Along with multimedia, and camera, Blackberry has preloaded a series of applications and games such as facebook, twitter which is targeted directly to the youth and social networking groups. RIM has also offered a new software store namely Blackberry App World with thousands of applications that cater many kinds of audience. Impact of the Blackberry Billboard In the given photo, i t looks as if a dark side of a cell phone is displayed. This point is not understandable as why the theme of the advertisement of Blackberry is kept to be too much on the gloomy side. Reappearance and repetition of the work â€Å"Blackberry† poses a negative impact of dragging the potential customer on boredom and irritating side rather than programming and scripting the core features of Blackberry. â€Å"Blackberry app world† is advertised in a very small typeface size and at a top left corner where the possibility of being overlooked may arise. Viewer of this advertisement may not pay any attention to such an ignored piece of information (Mobile Phone Archive – Banana Kuwait Blog). Regardless of the age group, the overall theme of World of Innovation does not make any sense as the so called innovative features displayed in the advertise, are also offered by other cell phone manufacturers including Nokia, Apple etc. So what is innovative in this advertisement b illboard is just a matter of misleading the potential customer, as all the innovative features offered, are already in the knowledge of the potential customer. Since the younger generation is moving ahead of these upcoming features in the cellular phones, therefore by showing them facebook, twitter, gmail cannot attract them in a great deal. Whereas the elder class has distinct dispositions regarding the type of cell phones that they use. Elite business class prefer those cell phones which have the options of emails, documentations, spreadsheets and contact data bases etc, unfortunately, none of these features are marketed in this particular billboard advertisement. Rest of the elder class prefers to use simple, durable, reliable and economic cell phones but, yet here again, this Blackberry advertisement fails to fulfill their expectations. Impact of Colors in Blackberry Billboard Colors have a substantial emotional and psychological impact in advertising any brand or product. The p redominant colors used in the subject that I chose are strong and dark colors, comprising of black, navy blue and deep red colors. Deep and dark colors generally portray sentiments of power, evil, mystery and death. On the other hand, Black also gives a sentiment of elegancy, depth and feeling of perspective. According to Color Wheel Pro, black serves in gathering attention towards the advertisement. In my opinion, Black and other dark colors have been used in this advertise

The importance of legitimizing PMS Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The importance of legitimizing PMS - Essay Example The symptoms themselves are quite tricky since for a considerable period of time many of these symptoms have been associated with the normal onset of the menstrual cycle. The list of symptoms is quite exhaustive since it includes things such as stress, aggression, abdominal bloating or cramps, swelling of the breasts or tenderness, headaches, aches and pains, inability to finish thoughts, fatigue, panic attacks and emotional instability with mood swings (Medline Plus, 2008). These symptoms overlap with several other medical problems and even the common cold could be misdiagnosed as PMS. The APA’s decision to add PMDD to the the DSM-IV is certainly a good decision since it deemphasizes the cultural stigma associated with PMS that has been given by the popular media to women who are undergoing these symptoms. Recognizing the problem as a problem is often the first step which can lead us to finding a solution for it and therefore it is a good decision of the APA to recognize the problem and thus allow researchers to seek solutions for it. The articles and medical information available about PMS certainly points to the idea that PMS should be given a medical diagnosis since the symptoms and the problems associated with the condition are quite extreme (Mayo Clinic, 2008). A woman who could be undergoing these symptoms may have no option to seek out help if the problem is not recognized as such. Traditional medicine which is supposed to relieve aches and pains such as painkillers and even home remedies might be used while different medication specifically tailored to tackle the symptoms of PMS may be out of reach or not prescribed at all. Of course there is a cultural stigma associated with PMS but it must be understood that this stigma is only given by chauvinistic males and does not have any basis in reality. Just as male specific psychological disorders can reduce their ability to have erections, PMS can be a

Final Exam Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

Final Exam - Essay Example Most nation states tend to set specific priorities when developing strategies that will be applied nationwide. However, differences seem to exist between independent and non-independent nation states as of the priorities used by each one when developing strategies that will be used in managing national resources and industries. For example, independent nation states tend to emphasize to the development of the country’s industries so that the dependency on foreign suppliers to be decreased’ (Kitching 10). Also, an independent nation state is expected to invest high amounts on the continuous update of its military industries, so that emergent military needs of the state can be covered, if required (Kitching 10). A non-independent nation state is expected to follow a different strategy; the government of such nation state would primarily consider the interests of those who control the nation’s industries, which are usually those who hold the control of the local mar ket (Kitching 10). In certain cases, it is possible for a nation state to be depended not on entrepreneurs or firms but on other states (Kitching 2010). This is the case of a nation state that has a critical value in terms of its national resources or for a nation state that has critical geo-political position, being able to influence the development of the economy of neighboring countries. ... The above view is based on the study of Kitching where the following example is provided: a research has been made as to whether the improvement of the economy of a state is possible simply by emphasizing on agriculture. It has been proved that such target can be achieved, even if agriculture is the only sector available for the support of the economy (Kitching). The above findings have been related to the efforts of a nation state to improve the performance of its economy without having other sectors to employ apart from agriculture. On the other hand, in countries where the independency of a nation state cannot be secured, the use of non-governmental or international organizations seems to be the best solution for addressing emergent nation needs, such as underdevelopment, terrorism and civil wards. The specific view could be based on the example provided through the study of Akinyeye. In the particular study reference is made to the challenges that Nigerian government has to face in regard to underdevelopment. Moreover, the measures taken by the government for controlling the expansion of the above problem have been proved inadequate. A governmental organization, the Regional Economic Commissions (REC), has been established for helping the country to face underdevelopment (Akinyeye 221). The Commission’s branches across the country have been proved particular valuable in confronting underdevelopment (Akinyeye 221). Still, the following problem has appeared: the communication between the Commission’s branches is poor; in this context, a series of processes is duplicated (Akinyeye 221). A non-governmental organization, the Africa Economic Community, with branches across Africa, has been introduced for helping Nigeria and other

Evidence For Hominid Evolution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Evidence For Hominid Evolution - Essay Example This was the probable lifestyle of early man. Scientifically, nearly 98% of human genes and chimpanzees are identical showing the biological closeness to humans. The cardinal difference between the two is the human brain size that is larger and complex. This makes man to communicate through speech, walk upright among others (Ruse, p.23). About five million years ago, australopithecines evolved from the apes. It had small canine and was bipedal. This was the earliest human species. There were two major australopithecine groups; robust and gracile. The main difference was the jaw and teeth size. From australopithecine, the next probable evolution was the Homo habilis. This represented the modern man and Louis and Mary Leaky in Tanzania found the evidence. The primate was bipedal, upright and would use forearm to handle tools and weapons. It had increased brain size than the former and climbed ability suppressed. They had opposable thumbs (Ruse, p.43). From the Homo habilis, there came the Homo ergaster that led to Homo erectus. This then led to Homo sapiens. The changes in the humans also showed changes in other primates such as the Chimpanzee. However the primary characters of the family bond, use of hand remained. The Chimpanzees just like humans are in the ape family. The differences in brain size, fur and eyes demonstrate the evolution that has occurred. Many similarities point to a similar origin. The similarities include the family bonding, the use of facial gestures such as surprise and comfort, omnivorous in nature, bipedal (Ruse, p.69). Neolithic revolution lead to a widespread change in human lifestyle from the era of hunting and gathering to agriculture and settlement era. This enabled the humans support the fast growing population. This Neolithic revolution has led to improved health and longevity as well as morbidity. With Neolithic

Deforestation in Costa Rica Essay Example for Free

Deforestation in Costa Rica Essay Costa Rica is famous for it’s rainforests and vast biodiversity and ecosystems, including 12,000 species of plants, 1,239 species of butterflies, 838 species of birds, 440 species of reptiles and amphibians, and 232 species of mammals (Wikipedia), which overtime have become under threat due to deforestation. Since the end of World War II, 80 percent of Costa Rican forests have disappeared (Wikipedia). Various companies are cutting down forests, to provide land for there fruit plantations and cattle ranches. During the 1990s, Costa Rica had one of the worst deforestation rates in the world. Clearing out forests is causing flooding, desertification, sedimentation in rivers, loss of wildlife diversity, and is the number one contributor to global warming. The country has laws protecting certain areas of the forests, but only 25 percent of Costa Rican forests are completely protected from companies due to lenient laws (Viva Costa Rica). Businesses that are clearing out Costa Rican forests are contributing to the destruction of the earth’s environment. Beef production is the largest cause of deforestation in Costa Rica. Approximately 60 percent of Costa Rica has been cleared out to make room for cattle ranching (Algee, â€Å"Cattle Ranching†). During the 1960s, problems worsened when the United States offered Costa Rican cattle ranchers millions of dollars in loans to produce beef (Viva Costa Rica), so all the ranchers had the forests cleared for space for more cattle. After Costa Rica stopped shipping cattle to the U. S. , the country was left with bare spots, where trees were cleared out, and most of the cattle was moved to the Pacific Northwest side of Costa Rica. Fruit plantations are the second largest cause of deforestation in Costa Rica, specifically banana plantations. Banana plantations now cover 130,000 acres of previously forested land in Costa Rica (Guadua Bamboo). Bananas are Costa Rica’s main moneymaking industry. While certain conservation laws have been passed to protect areas from banana farming in Costa Rica, the government lacks the resources to enforce them. The banana industry is known for its dangerously high use of pesticides, which in the 1970s, caused thousands of plantation workers to become sterile (Guadua Bamboo). These pesticides used to maintain fruits, may enter the water systems and contaminate the water. Nutrient balance in the soil is also disrupted by the removal of the rainforests to make way for fruit plantations, by exhausting the soils and leaving them weak. Weak soil makes it challenging to maintain the land for agriculture. When a ground surface is stripped of vegetation, the upper soils becomes helpless to water erosion. Costa Rica loses about 860 million tons of valuable topsoil every year (Mongabay). Forests have a natural ability to absorb water when it rains, and release it slowly into rivers. Without the vast amounts of vegetation, flash floods are caused, the water rushes into the rivers, taking the sediment with it. Once the sediment builds up, the water no longer flows, and it floods the areas. The increased sediment load of rivers suffocates fish eggs, causing lower hatch rates, reducing the fishing industry. Erosion also destroys roads and highways that cross through the forest. The government does not shut down the roads, but must rebuild them repeatedly, using money that could be used more productively elsewhere. Deforestation is the number one cause of global warming. In his article â€Å"Deforestation: The Hidden Cause of Global Warming†, Daniel Howden explains â€Å"Carbon emissions from deforestation far outstrip damage caused by planes and automobiles and factories deforestation accounts for up to 25 percent of global emissions of heat-trapping gases, while transport and industry account for 14 percent each; and aviation makes up only 3 percent of the total† Deforestation results in the immediate release of carbon stored in trees as carbon-dioxide emissions. Trees are 50 percent carbon. When they are felled or burned, the carbon dioxide they store escapes back into the air. Carbon dioxide helps absorb heat; therefore too much carbon dioxide results in global warming. Costa Rica has an amazing conservation program that protects more than 10 percent of the country (Mongabay). One protected strip of forest runs for 40 miles, through nine ecological zones. The country presented a plan in 1995; to protect 18 percent of the country in national parks and another 13 percent in privately owned preserves. The country is targeting to protect the areas with the most biodiversity. The government funds the project by issuing landowners forest protection certificates, which will annually pay landowners about $50 for every 2. 5 acres of forest, with the agreement that the forest will be protected. In 2005, another program added Costa Rica to which wealthy nations were called to compensate poor nations for rainforest conservation. The amount of Costa Rican land deforested annually has declined since 1977, by 118,158 acres (Wikipedia). Around two-thirds of Costa Ricas remaining rainforests are now protected. Companies that are felling trees in Costa Rican forests are destroying the earth’s environment. These companies that contribute to deforestation are killing various species, and are ultimately harming the earth itself through greenhouse gas emissions. Costa Rica is doing a great job repairing their forests, and making sure that certain areas will remain untouched. Last year, the country passed a law that will decentralize their decision-making. The efforts the country is making to stop deforestation, is causing Costa Rica to stand out and show their commitment toward environmental and natural resources issues.

Schema Theory: Usefulness For Language Teaching

Schema Theory: Usefulness For Language Teaching There can be no doubt that all our knowledge begins with experience, Immanuel Kant (1781: 41). What is schema and schema theory? A schema (plural schemata) is termed as a mental structure (which) derives from all the particular experiences we have had (Nuttall 1982:7). Schema theory was first proposed by the gestalt psychologist Bartlett (1932), who observed that when people were asked to repeat a story from memory, they often filled in details which were not included in the original but related to what they already knew based on their cultural background. Schema then is culturally bound, as shall be shown in this essay. The concept of schema can be found from anthropology to philosophy and has been considered for both instruction and assessment in language learning, examples of which will be referred to and considered later. Kant (1781) claimed that new information, concepts and ideas can only have meaning when they can be related to something already known by the individual. This exemplifies how the idea of background knowledge in language-related performance has been around for centuries, if not actually co ined as a term at the time. McNamara, Miller and Bransford (1991) in Clapham (1996), who referred to the theory as mental models which consist of mental tokens, agree that schemata are used in comprehension but that it is not clear what we do with them. There are two main types of schema that have since been termed by theorists (Cook 1997). The first is formal schema and is based on the background knowledge of the structure of any given text. The second is content schema and relates to the background knowledge of the content area. We can see then that all schemata relates to background knowledge of some kind. A similar distinction can be made with processing skills used for reading, which is discussed later. Carrell (1998) states that these processes are not understood well. In this essay I will, however, attempt to address the issue of schema theory along with its practical application in relation to studies that have been carried out in the area. In doing so, I will also attempt t o focus on the main skills involved and the factors that affect its usefulness from the perspective of a language teacher. As teachers of English, we are constantly attempting to activate schematic knowledge for all skills work, and indeed, any work at all done in class. Within the context of a multi-skills approach, it more often than not leads to processing via receptive skills (reading and listening) and then progresses to productive skills work (speaking and writing). Research on schema theory has had a great impact on understanding both reading and listening skills, with the amount of research done seemingly focussing on the former. Thus, for the purposes of this essay I shall refer mainly to the evidence as it is applied to reading skills. Most methodologies investigating the role of schemata or background/prior knowledge are variations on Carrell’s (1987) paradigm. Traditionally in the study of second language comprehension, the emphasis has been focussed almost exclusively on the language itself rather than the individual attempting to interpret it (Cook 1997). It seems that more recently the language learner themselves, with the knowledge and ideas that they bring from the outside world, is perhaps as important a factor as the language itself. Carrell and Eisterhold (1983:80) point out that one of the most obvious reasons why a specific content schema may fail to exist for a reader is that the schema is culturally specific and is not part of a reader’s cultural background. Aebersold and Field rather philosophically describe it when they say, if the topic†¦is outside of their experience or base of knowledge, they are adrift on an unknown sea (1997:41). It is then surely the teachers responsibility to help learners and make sure that they are guided in the right direction by providing that which may be missing, or at the very least, helping to stimulate what is already there. In an ideal scenario, it would include a combination of both factors. Application to skills processing Processing a text can be seen as a two-way process between the text and the background knowledge or memory schemata of the listener or reader (Carrell 1982). This again stresses the need to take the learner into account and suggests a more holistic approach to skills work. Cook (1989) states that the mind, when stimulated by key words or phrases in the text or by the context, activates a knowledge schema. The emphasis here is on the cognitive characteristics of schema which allow us to relate incoming information to existing information. The reading process, therefore, involves such things as identification of genre, formal structure and topic; all of which activate schemata and allow readers to comprehend a text (Swales 1990:89). In turn, as well as allowing for the organisation of information and knowledge, schemas also allow us to make predictions on the continuation of discourse and check whether our fit matches (Carrell 1998). If it does not, then it would be common sense that w e are able to add to our already existing schema. It also makes sense that the more experience (both life and classroom) a learner has, the more available schemata they will have at their disposal and thus the better equipped they will be. Focussing as we are mainly on reading skills, a useful distinction can be made here between top-down and bottom-up processing. The former relates to making predictions based on background knowledge (knowledge-based) and the latter to building textual meaning from the individual linguistic units (text-based) (Carrell 1982:101). This has also been referred to by Anderson Lynch (1988) as schematic knowledge, which is background knowledge that includes factual/sociological factors and procedural knowledge or how the language is used in discourse; versus systemic knowledge, which is the knowledge of the language system and includes semantic, syntactic and phonological features. All of which, when related by context, combine to provide comprehension. So then, in relation to schema theory, it is with the former of both the above that we are most concerned. At times it can seem that theorists are overly concerned with this being some kind of battle and hence, the use of the word versus abov e, with one aspect winning over the other. However, evidence points to reading skills involving both equally, working hand-in-hand in order to achieve the best results possible. This view is supported by Spiro (in Carrell 1998), who believes that skilled readers constantly adapt their mode of processing, changing to meet the demands of a particular text/reading situation; less skilled readers tending to rely overly on processes in one direction and thus experiencing negative effects on overall comprehension. Overreliance on top-down processing has been referred to as schema interference, or a lack of understanding (Carrell 1998). When faced with unfamiliar topics, some students may overcompensate for absent schemata by reading in a slow, text-bound manner; other students may overcompensate by wild guessing (Carrell 1988:101). Swaffar, Arens and Byrnes (1991) in Clapham (1996) argue that most reading comprehension items only test bottom-up skills and fail to actually measure the way a reader understands, advertising the use of recall protocols in tests of reading comprehension. This view is supported by Carrell (1998) and has certainly been my experience as a teacher of English. We can surmise then that it is our responsibility as teachers to help make learners aware of the importance of both types in relation to one another and attempt to provide the right balance in order to achieve the greatest degree of comprehension possible. The form of detrimental processing mentioned here is supported by a good deal of related studies, some of the most significant of which I will now present in order to provide further validity to the concept of schema and schema theory. Studies Research carried out by Johnson in Carrell and Eisterhold (1983) suggests that a text on a familiar topic is better recalled than a similar text on an unfamiliar topic. Swales (1990), believes that this and other research supports the expectation that when both content and form are familiar the texts will be relatively accessible. It seems evident then that the greater the difference between the L1 and L2, the greater the difficulty in interpretation. Carrell and Eisterhold state that some key concepts may be absent in the schemata of some non-native readers or they may have alternate interpretations (1983:87). An obvious example we can choose to better exemplify this idea, are life rituals, such as celebrations that include weddings and festivals. One cultures concept of Christmas, for example, may contrast completely with anothers or may not, in fact, exist at all. These gaps or differences in cultural knowledge then need to be bridged in order to comprehend relevant information t o be considered and worked on. In Carrell’s (1987) study mentioned previously, subjects remembered the most when both the content and rhetorical form was familiar to them. However, when only content or only form was unfamiliar, unfamiliar content caused more difficulty for the readers than did unfamiliar form. This has obvious implications for the classroom and language learning, and suggests the common sense idea that teachers should attempt to choose topics and texts which learners have some concrete understanding of, especially when it comes to actual content involved. The form of a text then is something that learners are perhaps better able to deal with and which can be analysed, in the form a model for example, and then compared with the concept of form in relation to what they already know or are aware of or vice-versa. A conclusive study was conducted by Steffensen and Joag-Dev (1984) using two descriptions of weddings, which found that readers comprehended texts abo ut their own cultures more accurately than the other, which is no real surprise. Similarly, studies by Johnson (1981) and Kang (1992) have revealed that cultural origin of a text/story has a greater effect on comprehension than syntactic or semantic complexity. Also, results suggested that prior cultural experience prepared readers for comprehension of familiar information in a text. This again puts the emphasis on the importance of cultural background and how necessary it is for teachers to spend a good amount of time making sure that cultural concepts are considered and understood, whatever the form may be. However, the previous study showed that exposure to any unfamiliar words does not seem to have a significant effect on reading comprehension. This would then perhaps suggest that we do not need to give similar weight to the consideration of vocabulary, though we should, of course, bear this in mind when approaching texts. Carrell (1998:245) asks the relevant pedagogical question: Can we improve students reading by helping them build background knowledge on the topic prior to reading, through appropriate pre-reading activities? This then, for whichever theme and skill we are about to introduce and practise, is the key question. Were it not true, the implications for current methodology, and indeed ELT materials would be vast. Fortunately for all involved, this does not seem to be the case. The available research shown above, along with the likes of Stevens (1982) and Hayes and Tierney (1982) in Carrell (1998), suggest that all the effort of activating schema or schemata, is actually worthwhile. The latter study found that presenting background information related to the topic to be learned helped readers learn from the text regardless of how that background information was presented or how specific or general it was. As Stevens says: A teacher of reading might thus be viewed as a teacher of relevant in formation as well as a teacher of reading skills (1982:328). Levels Different pre-reading activities may be more or less effective with different proficiency levels. Hudson (1982) in Carrell (1998) found that a more explicit pre-reading activity, such as discussing pictures and making predictions, had a significantly greater facilitating effect on reading comprehension when compared to another less specific type; for example, vocabulary related. However, close analysis of the data showed that the effect was only significant for beginner and intermediate level ESL readers, with no real difference for advanced levels. This might then suggest that higher level learners are better able to deal with a lack of schema activation. Another significant issue is that, as lower level students may have the background knowledge but not the language skills to discuss them in English, their L1 might be used to access schemata but teachers should present the related vocabulary or otherwise a schema has been activated but learning the L2 has not been facilitated (Aebe rsold and Field 1997:77). ELT materials design When I first considered exactly what schema theory was, while admittedly not being fully sure, I was aware that it must have something to do with how, as language teachers, we are encouraged to warm up learners with an introduction that they can relate to and to ascertain exactly what it is that they know in relation to the subject matter and the coverage of a lesson and then to provide that which may be missing. So let us first begin by considering the actual activities that are used to introduce a topic. Carrell (1998) offers a variety of means in which relevant schemata may be constructed, including: discussion, real-life experiences, visual aids, text previewing, introduction and discussion of key vocabulary, and key-word/concept association activities. I would add brainstorming and use of quotations to this list. Although helpful, Carrell (1998) is of the opinion that these pre-reading activities are probably insufficient to be used only by themselves and teachers will almost c ertainly need to supply additional information; going on to suggest that it is probably wise to assume that pre-reading activities work best when used in a variety of combinations, believing that such activities must both build both new background knowledge, as well as activating existing background knowledge. So then, they are to be considered as a starting point and a springboard or foundation for teachers to utilise and learners to work from. The utilisation of schema theory in materials design is, in my opinion, completely evident and there for all to see. I do not feel it is necessary to include an extensive list of ELT materials in order to provide such examples, as there is such a great amount available. I think it can safely be stated that the introductory activity types do not vary too greatly and can be found in most good ELT textbooks; examples of which are Cutting Edge and (New) Headway, which are now considered classic ELT coursebooks and are widely used in the field along with many others that I have used myself in the past. Thus, I will instead focus on an example that I am currently using in my own teaching. As a teacher of English for Academic Purposes, I tend to use the Language Leader series of coursebooks along with other related materials, such as teachers books and so on, which I find both effective and user-friendly. I currently teach mid to high level learners who have an arts background and are worki ng towards arts related courses in higher education such as degree courses, and so it is appropriate that I choose material that focuses specifically on this area. The beginning of Unit 9 in Language Leader Upper-Intermediate (see appendix 1) provides examples of the activities mentioned above and include, for example, a picture of a Dali painting along with a quote to consider with some related questions for discussion, before moving onto what constitutes art and asking the students to read a text (leaflet: p.91) related to the theme of art This is a typical example of how schema theory is utilised in ELT materials and very similar activities can, in fact, be seen at the start of each unit. However, as Carrell (1998) suggests, this is not enough; and so, we as teachers are handed the responsibility of deciding exactly what to do with it. There are, of course, teachers books that help to provide ideas for usage which can be highly beneficial for inspiring ideas, especially for teach ers without the experience that helps to know how to approach such an activity. In using the material in the classroom myself, I have taken what is there and, as Carrell (1998) has suggested, added variety to it and attempted to bring it to life. For example, rather than just using one picture that is in the coursebook, show learners a range of examples that include a variety of genres and will then link into later activities that require learners to consider what constitutes art and include such examples (see activity 1b). Learners might also be encouraged prior to the lesson to bring in their own examples and thus start the activation and thinking process before the lesson has even begun. It could, and arguably should, link to work done in previous lessons that may include visits to art museums and galleries. This then is a kind of controllable variable in that we hopefully already have an idea of the background knowledge that learners will bring in from previous learning and the outside world. Thus, the more we know our students, the more it makes sense that we are in a position whereby we are better able to know what might work best. This is an area that I feel could be expanded upon and explored in greater detail by those who carry out studies pertaining to the area of schema and schema theory. While the learner is indeed now taken into account, the actual relationship and depth of shared and common knowledge between the teacher and their learners, plus amongst learners themselves, is something that rarely seems to be mentioned. Further application As well as in relation to teaching, schema theory can be applied to testing also; whether it be for diagnostic or assessment purposes. Of course, there are far too many examples of testing for us to consider here but it can be said that many of these forms of testing are very limited. As an IELTS examiner, it can sometimes seem as though one is preparing learners with strategies and techniques in order to pass a test, rather than to actually improve their English language skills. With all the skills being tested individually, we could apply schema theory across the board and suggest that the test-taker is not always prepared with necessary schematic knowledge before actually taking the exam. However, not all will be aware of the usefulness of this, and instead take the test(s) cold. They will then be expected to respond to and answer questions that they have a very limited knowledge of, which is a major criticism of the exam. For example, if they have not previously considered the ef fects of globalisation, they will not have the necessary schematic knowledge needed to answer the question. A better method, in my opinion, would be to make the exam more integrative and thus testing more than one skill at a time. For example, rather than testing receptive and productive skills separately, a combination could be used in which learners read a text or listen to an extract and then have to respond by writing or speaking about that which they have just been exposed to. That way we are then better able to actually provide the necessary information which might not be there in the first place. For example, learners might be asked to summarise a text or extract after reading or listening to it. It makes sense that test-takers will more likely come with the formal schema but not necessarily the content schema required. It will be interesting to see how the new Pearson Test deals with this aspect, especially being a computer based exam. Conclusion Despite the current popularity of pre-reading/listening activities, there might be restrictions to their use in ELT and they may not always work as intended. Cook (1994) stated that schemas can be restrictive even if they allow us to process communication. It has been proved that applications of schema theory do not always mean that comprehension has been improved, particularly where there is insufficient attention to the details of a given text, or where schema-interference increases due to the activation of dominant or negative schemata (Stott 2001). Also, there is evidence that the contextual and background information given may not always necessarily be adopted by the learners. However, there is little doubt that schema theory has positively influenced the teaching of reading and listening and that pre-activities can help to improve a learners comprehension in many situations. Therefore, it makes sense for teachers to use such activities but not be assumptive that what we expect is in fact reality. In other words, teachers should make sure that they check the usefulness of the activities used and pay close attention to possible schema-interference or non-activation. In essence, we must do the most possible in order to increase comprehension, and thus, maximise overall performance. Bibliography Aebersold, J. and Field, M. (1997) From Reader to Reading Teacher. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Anderson, A. and Lynch, T. (1998) Listening. Oxford: Oxford University Press Bartlett, F. (1932) Remembering. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Carrell, P. (1982) Cohesion is not coherence; TESOL Quarterly: Vol. 16, No. 4 Carrell, P. and Eisterhold, J. (1983) Schema Theory and ESL Reading Pedagogy, in Carrell, P., Devine, J. and Eskey, D. (eds) (1988) Interactive Approaches to Second Language Reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Carrell, P. (September, 1987) Content and Formal Schemata in ESL Reading; TESOL QUARTERLY. Vol. 21, No. 3: Southern Illinois University Carrell, P. (1988) Some Causes of Text-boundedness and Schema Interference in ESL Reading, in Carrell, P., Devine, J. and Eskey, D.E. (eds) (1988) Interactive Approaches to Second Language Reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Carrell, P. (1998) Interactive Approaches to Second Language Reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Clapham, C. (1996) Studies in Language Testing: The Development of IELTS 4. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Cook, G. (1994) Discourse and Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press Cook, G. (January, 1997) Key concepts in ELT; ELT Journal. Volume 51/1: Oxford University Press Cook, G. (1989) Discourse in language teaching: A scheme for teacher education. Oxford: Oxford University Press Johnson, P. (1981) Effects on reading comprehension of language complexity and cultural background of a text; TESOL Quarterly: 15(2), 169-181. Kang, H. (1992) The effects of culture-specific knowledge upon ESL reading comprehension: School of Education Review, 4, 93-105. Kant, I. (1781) Critique of pure reason Maslow, A. (July, 1943) A theory of human motivation; Psychological Review: Vol. 50(4), 370-396. Nuttall, C. (1982) Teaching Reading Skills in a Foreign Language. Heinemann Singhal, M. (1998) A Comparison of L1 and L2 Reading: Cultural Differences and Schema, http://iteslj.org/Articles/Singhal-ReadingL1L2.html [last accessed on: 14.11.09] Swales, J. (1990) Genre Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Steffensen, M. and Joag-Dev, C. (1984) Cultural knowledge and reading, In J. Alderson A. Urquhart (Eds.), Reading in a Foreign Language (pp. 48-61). New York: Longman Stott, N. (November 2001) Helping ESL Students Become Better Readers: Schema Theory Applications and Limitations; The Internet TESL Journal: Vol. VII, No. 11 Tannen (1993) Framing in Discourse. Oxford University Press US

Conspiracy Theories Explained

Conspiracy Theories Explained Introduction â€Å"Conspiracy theory† is a subject that awakens our sense of interest and curiosity. Knowing that what we are told may not be true, makes us want to know more about that subject and, sometimes, any other theory that comfort us, seems more legit. These theories are like a darker side of some huge events, that the government and/or other secret facilities want to hide from the society, and the society tends to be suspicious, leading to an uncertainty about the official statements. This subject is very exciting for our group because it’s something that makes us curious and it has to do with our possible future job as part of the media. We also chose this theme because we think it’s a very good way to develop the interest of our school mates, to be more curious and develop their sense of investigation. A person who’s curious about something like theories of conspiracy is a person that is curious about everything and that’s very important in social communication students like us. Furthermore, curiosity has always been one of the most important characteristic of human beings, because if we weren’t curious, we wouldn’t have discovered how to make fire yet. Ana Rita Rebelo What are Conspiracy Theories and why do people tend to believe them? The word â€Å"conspiracy† comes from Latin, con (with) and spirare (breathe). By joining â€Å"breathing† and â€Å"with†, we get whispering, which presuppose a secret. So, conspiracy is a group of people who act in secret. Conspiracy theories are non-proven alternative explanations for facts or events, usually created by someone or a group who has an opinion that goes against the official version of the same episode. The creators and fans of those theories that are supported and confirmed by respectable institutions or highly credible people, are usually sceptics about the explanations that is given to the society, so they come up with theories that reveal an â€Å"alleged secret plan, led by a secret alliance of powerful organizations and individuals† (Freedman 2000)[1]. The majority of people, who believe on these kinds of theories, have lost their faith in politics, or on the hierarchical power that rules the country. Those leaders in charge are considered to be double-crossers and ruthless people, so any official explanations that come from them are immediately declined or causes a lot of uncertainty within society. This leads to an increased reliability in any other unofficial explanation. Other common feature in believers of conspiracy theories is fear. If, for example, it had occurred a terrorist attack or a natural disaster, we would feel powerless and panicking, so we would more easily believe in any theory that can comfort us, even if it goes against the official explanation and if it can’t be proved. Ana Rita Rebelo How do people create theories of conspiracy? 1- Define your Conspiracy subject matter Choosesomething people find puzzling,conspiracy theories develop where people are mystified, confused and curious. People have the in need to feel that there is sense in what happens in the world, thats why when we dont understand them we’ll make a story/theory for why events happen. 2 Make sure what you choose to explain is significant to enough readers. If your subject isnt significant to other people they wont even give you the time to explain your theory cause theyre not into it, so if you want your theory to spread, be known and have followers/supporters youll have to choose an interesting subject, not just for you bur for others, something with a big impact in society and the world. 3 Identify the agents responsible for the Conspiracy You always have to find someone to put the blame on, normally people dont easily accept the fact that things happened because it was supposed to, like when a natural disaster occurs some people accept that it wasnt our fault, others have to find someone to put the blame on and accuse as the culprit. 4 Connect the Dots Make the links between the subject you chose and the actors (those responsible for the conspiracy), revealing what has been industriously hidden by the conspirators until now. Some examples of the conspiracy theories are the Escape of Adolf Hitler and the planning of 11th September. Ana Rita Loureiro Examples of Conspiracy Theories There are documents that â€Å"prove† that Hitler didn’t committed suicide in 1945, after knowing that Nazis didn’t won the war. Moreover, it’s believed that he escaped in a submarine to Argentina. Two journalists, Simon Dunstan and Gerrard Williams, wrote Grey Wolf: The Escape Of Adolf Hitler that talks about the journey till his arrival, and the life he had in Argentina. Some people even believed that the famous skull that have the bullet hole of Hitler’s suicide is not his head, but â€Å"RochusMisch, Hitler’s former radio operator and the last survivor of the Berlin bunker, says he saw the bodies of ‘the boss’ and Eva Braun with his_own_eyes.†[2] About 11th September, many people refuse the official story. Many of them believe that the attack was generated by the US government, to provide political benefits to the country. Supposedly, the plan was explained to terrorists so that they could prepare the attack because, f or the society, is almost impossible to believe that 19 terrorists managed to cause all that chaos and destruction for themselves. In the Internet, there is a theory that says that if we write in the Word â€Å"Q33 NY† in the font â€Å"wingdings†, we obtainà ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Ãƒ ¯Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬ËœÃƒ ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ³Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ³Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Ãƒ ¯Ã‚ Ã… ½Ãƒ ¯Ã‚ Ã¢â€ž ¢, which reminds us of the attack that caused the crash of the twin towers and the death of a lot of US citizens. People who are fan of the theories of conspiracy begin to make some associations. Catarina Pereira How the Government mutes the Social Media? Sometimes, a few journalists tend to investigate by their own something that they think it has to be investigated, even when their superiors stop that investigation. When they try to find out the truth about something that the government doesn’t want them to find, what does the Government do? Conspiracy theories begin when journalists try to find the truth and try to tell the people what they’ve discovered, but when the government doesn’t want that truth to come out, it’s quite easy to just mute the journalists that tried to speak to the society. A journalist is powerless compared to the government, so the government just speaks to the people and say â€Å"that’s not true†, even when the journalists have a lot of evidences. The government has a lot more influence on the society because we all know the power they have. Even if we consider believing that the conspiracy is true, the government can easily change our minds with the influence they have over the society, even over the social media. Some people can’t even consider to believe in what the media say because of the influence that the government as over them. In the other hand, people that believe in the conspiracy theories don’t listen to the government. Those people feel powerless about something and don’t trust the political power and, sometimes, people that have evidence on their own, who saw or had experienced something, made them believe that conspiracy theories are actually true. Ana Margarida Dinis Conclusion In one hand, we all know that Conspiracy theories are not easy to believe because it lacks of evidence and sustainable proves. But in the other hand, it’s a fact the people always tend to believe in theories and convictions that can comfort us, and sometimes, all the mystery involving some events, makes us a little bit more curious, wary and open minded to this speculations. As Dan Brown says in Da Vinci Code, â€Å"Everyone loves a conspiracy.† Television, but mostly Internet, are the greatest boosters to make people believe in conspiracy theories. We found an article about this subject in a famous Portuguese magazine, that says that â€Å"World Wide Web gives voice to a lot of crazy and scary conspiracy theories about everything people can imagine. To more depressing to the funnier, going through the absurd (†¦)†[3]. There are some sceptical people who despite this theories, and also people who consider them ridiculous. But we, as a bio, psico, socio and cultural beings, believe that even if we aren’t sure about something, we have to keep an open mind and we can’t reject it without knowing at least a little bit about the subject. Ana Rita Rebelo Webgraphy BRAIN, Marshall (n.d.). How Conspiracy Theories Work. How stuff Works?.  Available inhttp://people.howstuffworks.com/conspiracy-theory.htm [Consulted  in 19th May, 2014] DEWSBURY, Rick; HALL, Allan HARDING, Eleanor (18th October, 2011).  Did Hitler and Eva Braun flee Berlin and die (divorced) of old age in   Argentina?. Daily Mail. Available in http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2050137/Did-Hitler-Eva-Braun-flee-Berlin-die-old-age-Argentina.html  [Consulted in 19th May, 2014] ScienceDaily (28th November, 2012); Porque as pessoas acreditam em teorias  da conspiraà §Ãƒ £o?. Hypescience. Available in http://hypescience.com/porque-as-pessoas-acreditam-em-teorias-da-conspiracao/ [Consulted in 19th May,  2014] SILVA, Sandra (2010). Teorias da Conspiraà §Ãƒ £o: Seduà §Ãƒ £o e Resistà ªncia a partir   da Literacia Medià ¡tica. Tese de Mestrado, Faculdade de Letras da  Universidade do Porto. Available in http://repositorio-aberto.up.pt/bitstream /10216/55681/2/TESEMESSANDRASILVA000126278.pdf [Consulted in 19th  May, 2014] Teorias da conspiraà §Ãƒ £o que correm na Internet (29th April, 2014). Visà £o.  Available in http://visao.sapo.pt/teorias-da-conspiracao-que-correm-na-internet=f778634 [Consulted in 21th May, 2014] [1]Available in SILVA, Sandra (2010). Teorias da Conspiraà §Ãƒ £o: Seduà §Ãƒ £o e Resistà ªncia a partir da Literacia Medià ¡tica. Tese de Mestrado, Faculdade de Letras da Universidade do Porto. Available in http://repositorio- aberto.up.pt/bitstream /10216/55681/2/TESEMESSANDRASILVA000126278.pdf [Consulted in 19th May, 2014] [2]Available in DEWSBURY, Rick; HALL, Allan HARDING, Eleanor (18th October, 2011). Did Hitler and Eva Braun flee Berlin and die (divorced) of old age in Argentina?.Daily Mail. Available in http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article- 2050137/Did-Hitler-Eva-Braun-flee-Berlin-die-old-age-Argentina.html[Consulted in 19th May, 2014] [3]AddaptedfromTeorias da conspiraà §Ãƒ £o que correm na Internet (29th April, 2014). Visà £o. Available in http://visao.sapo.pt/teorias-da-conspiracao-que-correm-na-internet=f778634 [Consulted in 21th May, 2014]